📚 Ancient and Medieval Important Keywords
Complete keyword list from Ancient and Medieval Indian History — covering administration, economy, religion, architecture, land systems, and more. Essential for UPSC & PCS preparation.
AAgahara / Brahmadeya – Land grants to Brahmana or educational settlements.
Agharikas / Agrarikas – During the reign of Harsha, they looked after the land given in charity.
Ahadis – Gentlemen-troopers recruited by the Mughal emperor; paid higher salaries than other troopers.
Aham Brahmasmi – Taken from Brihadaranyaka Upanishad.
Ajivika – A heterodox sect closer to Jainism, which flourished at the time of the Buddha.
Agnikula – Certain Rajput clans who claim to have emerged from Yajna Havana-Kunda.
Amalguzar or Amils – Revenue officers.
Amatya – Official designation for a high official, used right from the Mauryan Period.
Amir-i-tuzuk – Master of ceremonies (Mughal administration).
Araghatta – Water wheel used in land irrigation.
Aranyakas – Vedic texts, traditionally composed by hermits.
Arthashastra – A treatise on polity by Kautilya, belonging to the Mauryan period. Note: No mention of Chandra Gupta, Mauryas, and Patliputra in it.
Asanga – A Buddhist philosopher; originator of Buddhist Yogachara idealism.
Aurang – Warehouse where goods were collected.
Ayukta – Designation of an officer frequently used in the Mauryan period.
Adhyakshas / Mahamattas – High-ranking Mauryan officials (Adhyakshas = superintendents, called Astynomoi by Megasthenes); concerned mostly with economic functions and some military duties.
B
Bali – Voluntary payment made by tribesmen to their chiefs in Vedic times; special officers called Balisadhakas were appointed to collect it.
Bandagan-i-Khas – Royal Slaves.
Banian – Indian agents to the East India Company.
Banjaras – Traders.
Baqqal – Trader, grain-dealer.
Barid – An intelligence officer appointed by the state to collect information.
Batai – Division of crop between the cultivator and landlord or government; payments may be in kind or cash.
Bhattavriutti – Area donated to Brahmana for educational reasons.
Bhukti – An administrative unit of a kingdom in the Gupta period.
Blue Water Policy – Attributed to Don Francisco de Almeida, the first Viceroy of Portuguese possessions in India.
Bodhisattva – A person who attains nirvana by working for the welfare of the world and voluntarily postpones release from rebirth.
C
Chaitya – A sacred enclosure; also used for a Buddhist place of worship.
Chachar – Land out of cultivation for 3–4 years.
Charai – A tax on cattle.
Charanachitras – Story-telling scroll paintings.
Chaturvedi Mangalam – Brahmana settlement with irrigation facility provided by kings.
Chauth or Chauthaai – One-fourth of the land revenue; originally a Zamindari charge in Gujarat, demanded by Shivaji as a war expense.
D
Dagh System – A system of branding of horses and animals.
Dam – A copper coin considered as 1/40th of the silver rupee for official purposes.
Daroga-i-Dak Chauki – In-charge of information and intelligence department (Mughal).
Darul Mulk – Capital.
Dastur-al-amal – Rule book.
Devadana / Tirunamattukanni – Land gifted to temples.
Dharma & Rita – Dharma (duty) signifies behaviour in accord with Rita (natural order which regulates the operation of the universe).
Dharmachakra – In Gandhara art, the preaching mudra associated with the Buddha’s First Sermon at Sarnath.
Digambara – A Jain sect whose followers do not believe in keeping even a small piece of cloth on themselves.
Diwan-i-Arz – Ministry of defence, headed by the Ariz-i-mamalik.
Diwan-i-Insha – Department of correspondence and records.
Diwan-i-kohi – Department of agriculture; created by Muhammad bin Tughluq.
Diwan-i-mustakharaj – Created to realise arrears; introduced by Alauddin Khilji.
Diwan-i-Wizarat – Finance department headed by the Wazir (Prime Minister).
E
Eripatti – Tank lands; land donated by an individual, revenue set apart for maintenance of the village tank.
F
Fanam – Coins.
Faujdars – Commandants.
G
Garbhagriha – The sanctum of the Hindu temple.
Gaulmika – Administration of villages was placed under them in the Satavahana Period.
Ghatika – Colleges generally attached to temples; smaller than Agrahara.
Gomat – In Rig Vedic society, cattle was the chief measure of wealth; a wealthy man was known as Gomat.
Gomastha – Paid servant to supervise weavers, collect supplies, and examine quality of clothes.
Gopuram – The main feature of the South Indian temple.
Gumasta – An agent or representative.
H
Hamam – A room for the bath of hot and cold water.
Hinayana – One of the two major Buddhist sects.
Hundi – A bill of exchange.
I
Ibadat Khana – Hall of worship built by Akbar for religious debates at Fatehpur Sikri.
Ijaradari System – Introduced by Warren Hastings; right to collect revenue.
Iqta – Land distribution, revenue, and administrative system introduced by Iltutmish.
J
Jarib – A measurement; land measurement or survey.
Jihat – Extra cesses.
Jizya – (a) In Delhi Sultanate literature, any tax which is not kharaj or land tax; (b) In the Shariat, a personal and yearly tax on non-Muslims.
K
Kaikkolas – Weavers who formed a prominent community (Vijayanagar society).
Kankut – Estimation of land revenue.
Kammikas – Custom officials.
Karori – A revenue officer.
Kayastha – A jati associated with revenue records, first found in the Mauryan period and frequently mentioned in the medieval period.
Kharaj / Khiraj – Land revenue.
Kharosthi – Script in which Ashokan inscriptions of Shahbazgarhi and Manashera are written.
Khawajasara – Eunuch (transgender) slaves.
Khilat – Robe of honour.
Khuntkatti – A joint holding of land by tribal lineage (Munda Tribe).
Kottom – An administrative unit.
Kula and Kulapa – Kula (Family) was the basic social unit; Kulapa was the head of the family.
Kuddapah-kar – Rice cultivation season, along with Samba-peshnam.
Kulah-daran – Saiyyads used to wear a cap (kulah).
Kumaramatya – An official designation of a high official.
Kutagarashala – A place where travelling mendicants halted and debated.
M
Madad-i-Maash – Large class of religious divines and learned men who, in return for services, were granted tracts of land for their maintenance.
MaGridhah Kasyasvidhanam – Motto of Lokpal; taken from Isavasya Upanishad.
Magathi and Shauraseni – Dialects of Prakrit.
Mahal – A group of land regarded as a unit for land revenue purposes.
Mahakshatrapa – ‘Great governor’, a title taken mainly by Saka kings.
Mahattama / Mahattara – Elders who assisted the Gramika in village administration.
Maitreya – The future Buddha yet to incarnate; holds a water phial.
Mandalam – An administrative unit frequently used in south India.
Manigramam and Nanadeshi – Guilds of south India.
Mansab – A military rank conferred by the Mughal emperor.
Maski Rock Edict – The only edict in which Ashoka refers to himself as the king of Magadha.
Matikaratalu – The merchants in Vijayanagar society.
Mauza – Revenue term for village; revenue collection unit in pargana.
Meluhha – The name the Mesopotamians used for the Indus Region.
Milkiyat – Personal land of Zamindars.
Mirasidar – Designated revenue payer to the state.
Mir-i-Atish – Head of ordinance (Mughal).
Mir-i-Barr – Imperial officer in charge of forests (Mughal).
Mir-i-Bahr – Supervised state boats and fleets (Mughal).
Mir-i-mal – Officer in charge of Privy Purse (Mughal).
Mir-i-munshi – In-charge of imperial correspondence (Mughal).
Mokasa – Grant of land for military service; rent-free land.
Muhtasib – Censor of public morals. Under Akbar, his function was secularised.
N
Nabud – Remission of land revenue on account of natural disasters.
Nadu – An administrative unit, frequently used in south India.
Nagara – Style of temple architecture developed in central and northern India.
Nalavajativaru (Sudras) – Mainly agriculturists in Vijayanagar society.
Nandopakramani – A particular measuring standard invented by Dhanananda.
Nastaliq – A Persian script used in medieval India.
Nati and Nati-kulani – Extended kin groups.
Netti Pakarana – “The Book of Guidance”; gives a connected account of the Buddha’s teachings.
Nirvana – Extinction of the flame of desire as per Buddhism.
Nishka – Unit of currency of the Rig Vedic Period made of gold; used as a convenient unit of value, though not a typical currency.
Nishka and Satamana – In Vedic texts, taken to be names of coins, but seem to be only prestige objects.
Nuncai – Wet fields.
P
Padma-murassa – Lotus blossom set with jewels; given only in exceptional circumstances.
Pahi-kashta and Khud-kashta – Non-resident and resident cultivators respectively.
Paibaqi – Land reserved for allotment in jagir.
Paramitas – Perfections whose attainment led to the Bodhisattva path.
Parivrajaka – Homeless wanderer.
Patanjali’s Mahabhasya – An important text of Sanskrit grammar.
Polaj – Land continuously in cultivation.
Puncai – Dry fields.
R
Rajjulu or Rachavaru – The ruling class in Vijayanagar society; Kshatriya varna seems to be absent.
S
Sadhal Sadhvi – Jain male and female monks.
Samantas – Feudal chiefs.
Sarapa – A gift from head to foot; consisted of a tunic, turban, and sash (Pataka).
Sarrafs – Money changers, bankers.
Saughall – Rent-free land.
Shaulkika / Shulkadhyaksha – Toll officials.
Shramana – One who strives for enlightenment (Buddhism, Jainism).
Shresthins – Indicates the guilds or organisations of merchants.
Siddhas (Sittars) – Lived in Tamil Nadu with a belief in monotheism; condemned idolatry.
Sindon – Harappan civilisation was the earliest to produce cotton; known as ‘Sindon’ by the Greeks, derived from Sindh.
Sohgaura Inscription – Oldest copper inscription of the Mauryas (Pre-Ashokan); deals with famine relief efforts.
Stri DharmaPaddhati – Only extant Sanskrit treatise to address women’s place and role in society; written by Trayambaka.
Sumangalavilasini – Buddhaghosa’s commentary on Digha Nikaya.
Susa and Ur – Harappan seals have been found in these Mesopotamian cities.
Syadvada / Anekantavada – Jain epistemology and metaphysics.
T
Tamiyurs – Large village land; distinct revenue unit of the Cholas.
Taqavi – Advance of money for sowing or extending cultivation.
Tatwamasi – Taken from Chhandogya Upanishad.
Theri – Elder nuns or respected women in Buddhism.
Therightha – Songs/short poems collected by Theris.
Tottiyans – Shepherds in Vijayanagar society.
Turushkadanda – A tax collected by the Gahadavalas during early medieval India.
U
Uparakshita – In the Satavahana kingdom, their function was building caves for monks.
Upari – Temporary occupant; tenant at will.
Usar – Barren land.
V
Vanik – Traders.
Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam – Taken from Maha Upanishad.
Vatapi (or Badami) – Capital of Chalukyas; well-known for Chalukyan sculpture in cave temples.
Vattakirutal – A king defeated in battle committing ritual suicide by starving himself to death.
Velaikkarar – Troops in royal service; bodyguard of the monarch (Chola).
Vidushaka – The constant companion and confidant of the hero in Sanskrit dramas; was nearly always a Brahmin.
Vihara – Buddhist monastery.
Viprulu or Brahmins – The Brahmin class in Vijayanagar society.
Vipravinodins – Artisans in Vijayanagar society.
Virukallu and Natukkul – A hero stone; memorial commemorating the honourable death of a hero in battle.
Vishaya – Divided into smaller parts called Vithis; consisted of the lowest unit of administration.
Vishti – Forced labour; a type of revenue by the state in ancient times.
Visuddhimagga – “The Path to Purity” by Buddhaghosa; deals with development from purity of discipline to nibbana/enlightenment.
W
Wakil – Agents of Nobles.
Waqia Nawis – Court writer who recorded all applications and documents presented in court.
Y
Yakshagana – The south Indian dance tradition that appeared for the first time in the Vijayanagar period.
Yapniya – A sect of Jainism; part of Digambara but also follows practices of Shwetambara.
Yajnas – Performance of sacrifices.
Yato Dharma Stato Jayaha – Supreme Court’s motto; taken from Mahabharata.
Z
Zabti System – Introduced by Akbar for land revenue administration; land was measured and revenue assessed on that basis.
Zawabit – Secular laws.
🏛️ Administrative Officers of the Sultanate Period
| Officer | Role |
|---|---|
| Wazir | Prime minister; headed the Diwan-i-Wizarat |
| Mustaufi-i-Mamalik | Auditor general; responsible for state expenditure |
| Mushrif-i-Mamalik | In-charge of accounts and receipts |
| Majumdar | Preserved the record of loans advanced by the government |
| Qazi-ul-Qazat | Lord Chief Justice |
| Barids | Spies |
| Waqia Navis | News reporters |
| Amil | In-charge of district administration |
| Community | Role |
|---|---|
| Viprulu (Brahmins) | Priestly class |
| Rajjulu / Rachavaru | Ruling class (Kshatriya varna absent) |
| Matikaratalu | Merchants |
| Nalavajativaru (Sudras) | Mainly agriculturists |
| Vipravinodins | Artisans |
| Kaikkolas | Weavers |
| Tottiyans | Shepherds |
| Motto | Source |
|---|---|
| Aham Brahmasmi | Brihadaranyaka Upanishad |
| Tatwamasi | Chhandogya Upanishad |
| MaGridhah Kasyasvidhanam (Lokpal motto) | Isavasya Upanishad |
| Sham No Varunah (Indian Navy motto) | Tattriya Upanishad / Rigveda |
| Yato Dharma Stato Jayaha (Supreme Court motto) | Mahabharata |
| Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam | Maha Upanishad |