Prelims Focused
“Take up one idea. Make that one idea your whole life.”— Swami Vivekananda
Overview
Dynasty Timeline at a Glance
3000 BC → 1947 AD
UPSC Pattern: Questions frequently ask about chronological order of dynasties, contemporary rulers across regions, which dynasty ruled when, and overlapping kingdoms. This page is structured to directly target those question types.
Proportional Timeline — Key Dynasties
Indus Valley Civ.
Vedic Period
Mahajanapadas
Mauryan Empire
Sangam / South
Kushanas / Sakas
Gupta Empire
Harsha / Pushyabhuti
Tripartite Struggle
Delhi Sultanate
Vijayanagara
Mughal Empire
British India
Prehistoric
Pre-Historic India
2 million BC → 600 BCIndus Valley Civilisation
NW India / Pakistan (Harappan)
2700–1900 BC
- Also called: Harappan Civilisation. Bronze Age civilisation.
- Major sites: Mohenjo-daro, Harappa, Lothal, Dholavira, Kalibangan, Rakhigarhi. PYQ
- Lothal — first planned dockyard; in Gujarat.
- Dholavira — largest IVC site in India; in Gujarat.
- Script: Undeciphered; Pictographic. No bilingual text found.
- No temples, no iron, no cavalry — hallmarks of IVC absence.
- Decline ~1900 BC — Climate change + Saraswati drying up (major theory).
- Cotton cultivation & standardised weights — key achievements.
Vedic Period
North India (Aryan settlements)
1500–600 BC
- Early Vedic (1500–1000 BC): Punjab-centred; Rigveda composed; pastoral, tribal. PYQ
- Later Vedic (1000–600 BC): Shift to Gangetic plains; agriculture dominant.
- Four Vedas: Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda, Atharvaveda.
- Sabha & Samiti — two tribal assemblies (Rigvedic); Sabha = smaller council.
- Painted Grey Ware (PGW) culture associated with Later Vedic period.
- Iron use begins in later Vedic phase (~1000 BC).
Mahajanapadas
North India (16 kingdoms)
600–300 BC
- 16 Mahajanapadas — listed in Anguttara Nikaya (Buddhist text). PYQ
- Most powerful: Magadha, Kosala, Vatsa, Avanti — the “Big Four”.
- Magadha’s rise — natural resources (iron), fertile land, Ganga trade routes.
- Republics (Ganas/Sanghas): Vajji confederacy, Licchavi, Malla — not monarchies.
- Licchavi of Vaishali — world’s first republic (UPSC favourite claim).
- Buddha born in Lumbini (Shakya republic); Mahavira born in Vaishali (Licchavi area).
- Haryanka dynasty founded Magadha; Bimbisara (544–492 BC) first great king.
- Ajatashatru (492–460 BC) — killed father Bimbisara; built Rajagriha fortifications.
Ancient India
Mauryan Empire
321–185 BCChandragupta Maurya
Magadha → Pan-India
322–298 BC
- Founded by Chandragupta with guidance of Chanakya (Kautilya). PYQ
- Defeated Dhana Nanda (last Nanda ruler) ~321 BC.
- Seleucus Nicator defeated; ceded NW territories; Megasthenes sent as ambassador.
- Megasthenes wrote Indica — key source for Mauryan administration.
- Converted to Jainism; abdicated and went to Shravanabelagola (Karnataka).
- Arthashastra by Kautilya — most comprehensive text on statecraft of ancient India.
Chandragupta
Bindusara (298–272 BC)
Ashoka (268–232 BC)
Brihadratha (last, 187 BC)
Ashoka the Great
Entire subcontinent (except extreme south)
268–232 BC
- Kalinga War (261 BC) — turned Ashoka towards Buddhism. PYQ
- Dhamma — not Buddhism per se; a moral code: non-violence, tolerance, respect.
- Rock Edicts & Pillar Edicts — 14 Major Rock Edicts; written in Brahmi, Kharosthi, Greek, Aramaic.
- Sent Buddhist missionaries: son Mahendra to Sri Lanka, daughter Sanghamitra.
- Kandahar Edicts — in Greek & Aramaic; shows diplomatic reach.
- Maski, Gujarra, Nittur inscriptions — actual name “Ashoka” mentioned (others use Devanampiya).
- Lion Capital of Sarnath → National Emblem of India.
- After Ashoka: Empire weakened; Pushyamitra Shunga assassinated last Maurya king (185 BC).
Post-Maurya
Successor Kingdoms
185 BC – 320 AD
UPSC Focus: This period sees multiple contemporaneous kingdoms — North Indian dynasties (Shunga, Kanva, Kushana) and Deccan dynasties (Satavahana) coexisting. Questions ask chronological order and geographic spread.
Shunga Dynasty
Magadha + Central India
185–71 BC
- Founded by Pushyamitra Shunga — killed last Maurya king Brihadratha. PYQ
- Brahmanical revival; revival of Vedic rituals (Ashvamedha performed).
- Patanjali (Mahabhashya) — court of Pushyamitra; Kalidasa may have belonged to later Shunga period.
- Sanchi Stupa elaborated during Shunga period (original stupa by Ashoka).
- Last king: Devabhuti — killed by minister Vasudeva Kanva (founded Kanva dynasty).
Satavahana Dynasty
Deccan (Maharashtra–AP)
235 BC – 220 AD
- Also called Andhras in Puranas; first great Deccan empire. PYQ
- Capital: Pratishthana (Paithan); later Amaravati.
- Issued bilingual (Prakrit + Telugu) coins — earliest Indian rulers to do so.
- Gautamiputra Satakarni (c. 106–130 AD) — greatest ruler; defeated Sakas, restored Brahmanical order.
- Patrons of Buddhism; built Amaravati Stupa.
- Famous for Satavahana Prakrit inscriptions at Nasik, Karle, Kanheri.
- Contemporaries of: Kushanas in North, Sakas in West India.
Indo-Greeks & Sakas
NW India / Western India
180 BC – 150 AD
- Indo-Greeks (180 BC–10 AD): First to issue bilingual coins (Greek + Kharosthi). PYQ
- Menander (Milinda) — greatest Indo-Greek ruler; converted to Buddhism; Milindapanha.
- Sakas (Scythians) — entered India through Bolan Pass; ruled western India.
- Saka Era = 78 AD — used in India’s national calendar.
- Rudradaman I (c. 150 AD) — greatest Saka ruler; Junagarh inscription — earliest Sanskrit prose inscription.
- Repaired Sudarshana Lake (originally built by Chandragupta Maurya).
Kushana Empire
NW India to Central Asia
78–250 AD
- Central Asian origin (Yuezhi / Tocharians); entered India via Hindu Kush. PYQ
- Kanishka I — greatest Kushana ruler; patron of Buddhism (Mahayana).
- Called Fourth Buddhist Council in Kashmir (~100 AD); Vasumitra presided.
- Capital: Purushapura (Peshawar).
- Contemporaries of: Rome, Parthia, China — controlled Silk Route.
- Gandhara Art — fusion of Greek + Buddhist; Buddha first depicted in human form.
- Mathura Art School — indigenous; Buddha depicted with Indian features.
- Famous scholars: Ashvaghosha (Buddhacharita), Charaka (medicine), Nagarjuna.
📚 Post-Maurya Period — Important Literary Works
मौर्योत्तरकालीन साहित्य · Shunga, Kanva, Satavahana, Kushana era
185 BC – 300 AD
Key Texts & Authors
Mahabhashya
Buddhacharita
Saundarananda
Gatha Saptashati
Charak Samhita
Natyashastra
Kamasutra
Swapnavasavadattam
Milindapanha
South India
Sangam Age — South Indian Kingdoms
300 BC – 300 AD
UPSC Focus: Sangam literature, the three kingdoms (Chola, Chera, Pandya), their emblems, capitals, and contemporaneity with Mauryas and Guptas are frequently tested.
Chola Dynasty (Early)
Tamil Nadu (Kaveri delta)
300 BC–300 AD
- Emblem: Tiger. PYQ
- Capital: Uraiyur (early); later Poompuhar/Kaveripattinam (port).
- Karikala Chola — greatest early Chola; built Grand Anicut (Kallanai) dam on Kaveri.
- Active in Bay of Bengal trade; conquered Sri Lanka.
- Sangam literature: Purananuru, Akananuru — key literary sources.
Chera Dynasty
Kerala + Kongu (Tamil Nadu)
300 BC–300 AD
- Emblem: Bow and arrow. PYQ
- Capital: Vanji (Karur). Ports: Musiri (Cranganore) and Tondi.
- Controlled Kerala coast — spice trade with Rome and Arabia.
- Senguttuvan — greatest Chera king; legendarily invaded North India.
- Kerala’s early history is essentially Chera history.
Pandya Dynasty
South Tamil Nadu (Madurai)
6th century BC – 1345 AD
- Emblem: Fish. Capital: Madurai (then Korkai for pearls). PYQ
- Mentioned by Megasthenes; sent embassy to Augustus Caesar (Rome).
- Famous for pearl fisheries of Korkai.
- Patrons of Tamil Sangam academies (three Sangams held at Madurai).
- Nedunjeliyan I — first Pandya king mentioned in Sangam literature.
- Revived under later Pandyas (9th–13th c.); declined after Delhi Sultanate invasion (1311 AD).
Classical Age
Gupta Empire — Golden Age
319–550 ADGupta Dynasty
North & Central India
319–550 AD
- Founded: Sri Gupta (~240–280 AD); Chandragupta I took title Maharajadhiraja (319 AD). PYQ
- Samudragupta (335–375 AD) — “Indian Napoleon” (Vincent Smith). Allahabad pillar prashasti by Harishena.
- Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya) (375–415 AD) — defeated Sakas of Ujjain; issued silver coins; Nine Gems (Navaratnas) at court.
- Nalanda University established under Gupta patronage.
- Kalidasa — Abhijnana Shakuntalam, Meghaduta, Raghuvamsha.
- Aryabhata — zero, place value system, heliocentric theory, pi (3.1416).
- Varahamihira — Brihatsamhita (astronomy, astrology).
- Fa-hien (Chinese pilgrim) visited during Chandragupta II’s reign.
- Huna invasions — Skandagupta repelled first wave; empire weakened after 467 AD.
- Land grants to Brahmanas → decline of central authority → feudalism begins.
Sri Gupta
Ghatotkach
Chandragupta I (319 AD)
Samudragupta
Chandragupta II
Kumaragupta I
Skandagupta
Vakatakas
Deccan (Contemporary with Guptas)
250–500 AD
- Contemporary and allies of Guptas through matrimonial alliance. PYQ
- Chandragupta II married daughter Prabhavati to Vakataka king Rudrasena II.
- Patrons of Ajanta caves — most paintings in Ajanta (especially Cave 1, 2, 16, 17) are from Vakataka period.
- Ruled Vidarbha region (modern Maharashtra/MP).
Pallava Dynasty
Tamil Nadu (Kanchipuram)
275–897 AD
- Capital: Kanchipuram. PYQ
- Mahendravarman I — patronised rock-cut cave temples; converted from Jainism to Shaivism.
- Narasimhavarman I (Mamalla) — defeated Chalukya Pulakeshin II; built Mahabalipuram.
- Shore Temple, Mahabalipuram (7 Pagodas) — built by Narasimhavarman II (Rajasimha).
- Kailasanatha Temple, Kanchipuram — oldest structural temple in South India.
- Spread Hinduism to Southeast Asia (Cambodia, Vietnam).
- Rivals: Chalukyas of Vatapi (ongoing Pallava-Chalukya conflict).
Chalukyas of Vatapi (Badami)
Deccan (Karnataka)
543–753 AD
- Capital: Vatapi (Badami, Karnataka). PYQ
- Pulakeshin II (610–642 AD) — greatest; defeated Harsha on banks of Narmada (no North Indian king crossed Narmada).
- Xuanzang (Hiuen Tsang) visited; praised Pulakeshin II’s kingdom.
- Pulakeshin II was killed by Pallava Narasimhavarman I (~642 AD).
- Vikramaditya II — recovered Vatapi from Pallavas.
- Defeated by Rashtrakutas (Dantidurga) in 753 AD — ended Chalukya rule of Vatapi.
- Famous Badami cave temples — blend of Shaiva, Vaishnava and Jain iconography.
📚 Gupta Age — Important Literary & Scientific Works
गुप्तकाल की महत्वपूर्ण रचनायें · Classical Golden Age of Sanskrit literature & science
319–550 AD
Literature
Ritusamhara
Meghaduta
Kumarasambhava
Raghuvamsha
Malavikagnimitram
Abhijnana Shakuntalam
Vikramorvasiyam
Mudrarakshasa
Devi Chandraguptam
Kavyadarsha
Dashakumara Charita
Svapnavasavadatta
Charudatta
Arubhanga
Harshacharita
Kadambari
Nagananda
Priyadarshika
Ratnavali
Mricchakatikam
Kiratarjuniyam
Shishupala Vadh
Science, Grammar & Philosophy
Aryabhatiyam
Surya Siddhanta
Brihat Samhita
Pancha Siddhantika
Brahma Siddhanta
Chandra Vyakarna
Amarakosha
Nyayavatara
Panchatantra
Nitishastra
Visuddhimagga
Yogachara
Kamasutra
Charak Samhita
Post-Gupta
Harshavardhana & Rajput Age
606–1200 ADPushyabhuti / Vardhana
Thanesar → Kanauj (North India)
606–647 AD
- Harshavardhana — last great Hindu emperor before Delhi Sultanate. PYQ
- Capital: Kanauj. Defeated by Pulakeshin II at Narmada — could not expand southward.
- Xuanzang (Hiuen Tsang) — Chinese pilgrim; wrote Si-Yu-Ki; invaluable source.
- Banabhatta — court poet; wrote Harshacharita and Kadambari.
- Harsha himself wrote three Sanskrit plays: Priyadarshika, Ratnavali, Nagananda.
- Organised grand assembly at Prayag (Kumbh) every 5 years; gave away all wealth.
- Death of Harsha (647 AD) → power vacuum → tripartite struggle begins.
Tripartite Struggle
North India (Kanauj control)
800–1000 AD
- Three powers fought for control of Kanauj: Gurjara-Pratiharas, Palas, Rashtrakutas. PYQ
- Gurjara-Pratiharas (NW India, Rajasthan): Mihira Bhoja greatest ruler; resisted Arab invasions.
- Palas (Bengal, Bihar): Gopala founded; Dharmapala & Devapala greatest; patrons of Buddhism, Nalanda.
- Rashtrakutas (Deccan, Malkhed): Amoghavarsha I greatest; Ellora Kailasa Temple (rock-cut) built by Rashtrakuta king Krishna I.
- No single power won decisively; weakened all three — opened door for Ghaznavid invasions.
Chola Dynasty (Imperial)
Tamil Nadu + parts of SE Asia
850–1279 AD
- Vijayalaya — revived Chola power (~850 AD); took Thanjavur from Muttaraiyar. PYQ
- Rajaraja I (985–1014 AD) — built Brihadeeswara Temple, Thanjavur (UNESCO); conquered Sri Lanka, Maldives.
- Rajendra Chola I (1014–1044 AD) — naval expedition to Southeast Asia (Srivijaya); brought Ganga water to capital → called Gangaikondachola; built Gangaikondacholapuram.
- Most advanced local self-government: Uttaramerur inscriptions describe village assembly (Sabha/Ur) elections.
- Bronzes of Nataraja (Shiva as cosmic dancer) — peak of Chola art.
- Kulottunga I — unified Eastern Chalukyas with Cholas.
- Declined due to Pandya revival and Hoysala pressure (13th c.).
Vijayalaya
Aditya I
Rajaraja I
Rajendra I
Kulottunga I
Rajput Dynasties
Rajasthan, Central & North India
700–1200 AD
- Chahamanas (Chauhans): Ajmer; Prithviraj III — lost to Ghori at Second Battle of Tarain (1192). PYQ
- Paramaras: Malwa; Bhoja I (11th c.) — polymath, patron of arts; built Bhoja Shala.
- Chandellas: Bundelkhand; built Khajuraho temples (10th–11th c.).
- Gahadavalas: Kanauj/Varanasi; Jayachandra (killed at Battle of Chandawar by Ghori, 1194).
- Solankis (Chaulukyas of Gujarat): Built Somnath temple (destroyed by Mahmud Ghazni, 1025).
- Rajputs resisted but could not unite against Ghori → defeat → Delhi Sultanate begins.
Early Medieval
Arab & Ghaznavid Invasions
712–1206 ADMuhammad bin Qasim
Sindh (Arab Umayyad invasion)
712 AD
- First Muslim invasion of India; defeated Raja Dahir of Sindh (712 AD). PYQ
- Captured Multan, Sindh; did not penetrate deep into India.
- Al-Hajjaj (Umayyad governor of Iraq) sent Qasim.
- Introduced concept of zimmis (protected non-Muslims) in India.
Mahmud of Ghazni
NW India (17 raids)
1000–1027 AD
- 17 raids into India — primarily for wealth, not conquest. PYQ
- Destroyed Somnath Temple (Gujarat) in 1025 AD — most famous raid.
- Al-Biruni accompanied Mahmud; wrote Kitab-ul-Hind — encyclopaedic account of India.
- Firdausi wrote Shah Namah at Mahmud’s court.
- Never intended permanent occupation; raids weakened Rajput power structure.
Muhammad Ghori
North India (conquest-oriented)
1175–1206 AD
- Unlike Ghazni, Ghori aimed at permanent conquest. PYQ
- First Battle of Tarain (1191) — defeated by Prithviraj Chauhan.
- Second Battle of Tarain (1192) — Ghori defeated Prithviraj; decisive.
- Battle of Chandawar (1194) — defeated Jayachandra (Gahadavala) of Kanauj.
- Left Qutb-ud-din Aibak as viceroy of India; assassinated 1206 AD.
- Aibak founded Delhi Sultanate (1206) — first Muslim kingdom in India.
Delhi Sultanate
Delhi Sultanate — Five Dynasties
1206–1526 AD
UPSC Focus: Chronological order of five dynasties, key rulers, important reforms, and administrative innovations are highly tested. Also note: Mongol invasions under each sultan.
Slave (Mamluk) Dynasty
Delhi Sultanate — I
1206–1290 AD
- Qutb-ud-din Aibak — founder; began Qutb Minar; died in polo accident (1210). PYQ
- Iltutmish (1211–36) — real consolidator; completed Qutb Minar; introduced iqta system; issued first silver tanka.
- Razia Sultana (1236–40) — first and only female ruler of Delhi; deposed by Turkish nobles.
- Balban (1266–87) — ended “Forty Nobles” (Chalisa); theory of divine kingship; Sijda and Paibos.
- Iltutmish organised Chahalgani (Group of Forty) — Turkish nobles who later became a power centre.
Aibak
Iltutmish
Razia
Balban
Khalji Dynasty
Delhi Sultanate — II
1290–1320 AD
- Jalaluddin Khalji — founded dynasty; aged, mild-mannered ruler. PYQ
- Alauddin Khalji (1296–1316) — greatest Khalji; nephew who usurped throne.
- Market Reforms: Four markets (grain, cloth, cattle, slaves/horses); fixed prices.
- Revenue reforms: Land measured; 50% revenue in cash; eliminated middlemen.
- Defeated all Mongol invasions (4 major ones repelled); built Siri Fort (second city of Delhi).
- Conquered Deccan: Malik Kafur led campaigns to Devagiri, Warangal, Dwarsamudra, Madurai.
- First sultan to conquer deep South India; brought vast wealth to Delhi.
Jalaluddin
Alauddin Khalji
Mubarak Shah
Tughlaq Dynasty
Delhi Sultanate — III
1320–1414 AD
- Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq — founder; built Tughlaqabad fort. PYQ
- Muhammad bin Tughlaq (1325–51) — genius + erratic; ambitious reforms failed.
- Token currency: brass/copper coins (people counterfeited; failed). PYQ
- Transfer of capital to Daulatabad (Devagiri) — forced march; reversed.
- Khurasan & Qarachil expeditions — disastrous military adventures.
- Ibn Battuta visited during MbT’s reign; wrote Rihla.
- Firuz Shah Tughlaq (1351–88) — welfare-oriented; banned torture; built canals, hospitals; many new towns.
- Timur’s invasion (1398) — sacked Delhi; wiped out late Tughlaqs effectively.
Ghiyasuddin
Muhammad bin Tughlaq
Firuz Shah
Sayyid & Lodi Dynasties
Delhi Sultanate — IV & V
1414–1526 AD
- Sayyids (1414–51): Claimed descent from Prophet; weak rulers; Timur’s nominee Khizr Khan founded dynasty. PYQ
- Lodis (1451–1526): First Afghan dynasty of Delhi.
- Bahlul Lodi — founder; restored some power.
- Sikandar Lodi — most capable; shifted capital to Agra; banned music and pilgrimages.
- Ibrahim Lodi — last sultan; arrogant; alienated Afghan nobles.
- Daulat Khan Lodi and Rana Sanga invited Babur → First Battle of Panipat (1526) — Babur defeated and killed Ibrahim Lodi → Delhi Sultanate ended.
South Medieval
Vijayanagara & Bahmani Kingdoms
1336–1687 ADVijayanagara Empire
South India (Hampi)
1336–1646 AD
- Founded by Harihara I & Bukka I (Sangama brothers) in 1336; capital Vijayanagara (Hampi). PYQ
- Four dynasties: Sangama → Saluva → Tuluva → Aravidu.
- Krishnadeva Raya (1509–29, Tuluva) — greatest ruler; author of Amuktamalyada (Telugu); Ashtadiggajas (8 poets) at court.
- Contemporary of Babur; Babur praised his army in Baburnama.
- Battle of Talikota (1565) — Vijayanagara defeated by Deccan Sultanates (Bijapur, Bidar, Golconda, Ahmednagar coalition); city sacked.
- Foreign visitors: Abdur Razzaq, Nuniz, Paes, Domingo Paes — described the empire’s grandeur.
- Hoysala, Kakatiya, Yadava kingdoms were contemporaries BEFORE Vijayanagara (all fell to Malik Kafur/Delhi).
Harihara I
Bukka I
Devaraya II
Krishnadeva Raya
Achyutadeva Raya
Bahmani & Deccan Sultanates
Deccan (Maharashtra, Karnataka, AP)
1347–1687 AD
- Bahmani Kingdom (1347–1527): Founded by Alauddin Hasan Bahman Shah (Zafar Khan); capital Gulbarga, then Bidar. PYQ
- Mahmud Gawan — greatest Bahmani minister; educational reforms; built Madrasa at Bidar.
- Bahmani split into 5 Deccan Sultanates: Bijapur (Adil Shahi), Golconda (Qutb Shahi), Ahmednagar (Nizam Shahi), Bidar (Barid Shahi), Berar (Imad Shahi).
- These 5 combined and destroyed Vijayanagara at Talikota (1565).
- Later Mughals absorbed them: Aurangzeb finally annexed Bijapur & Golconda (1687).
Hoysala / Kakatiya / Yadava
Deccan & South (Pre-Vijayanagara)
10th–14th century AD
- Hoysala (Karnataka, 10th–14th c.): Capital Dwarasamudra (Halebidu); star-shaped temple platform (Vesara style). PYQ
- Hoysaleswara Temple (Halebidu), Chennakesava Temple (Belur) — finest Hoysala architecture.
- Kakatiya (Telangana, 12th–14th c.): Capital Orugallu (Warangal); Rudramadevi — famous queen; Prataparudra II — last king (defeated by Malik Kafur, then Ulugh Khan).
- Yadava of Devagiri (Maharashtra, 9th–14th c.): Capital Devagiri (Daulatabad); first target of Alauddin Khalji’s Deccan campaigns (1296).
- All three destroyed by Delhi Sultanate — none established in 8th century (UPSC 2023 question). PYQ
Mughal Empire
Mughal Dynasty
1526–1857 ADBabur & Humayun
Timurid — Ferghana origin
1526–1556 AD
- Babur: First Panipat (1526) vs Ibrahim Lodi; Khanwa (1527) vs Rana Sanga; Ghaghra (1529) vs Afghans. PYQ
- Introduced gunpowder + artillery to India; also used tulughma tactic (flanking).
- Wrote Baburnama in Chagatai Turkish — earliest autobiography by an Indian ruler.
- Humayun: Defeated by Sher Shah Suri (1539 Chausa, 1540 Kanauj); exiled to Persia 15 years.
- Humayun recaptured Delhi in 1555; died falling from library steps (1556).
Sher Shah Suri (Sur Dynasty)
North India (interregnum)
1540–1555 AD
- Afghan ruler; defeated Humayun; short but transformative rule. PYQ
- Grand Trunk Road (Kabul to Chittagong); planted trees, built sarais every 2 kos.
- Rupiya — introduced silver coin; also copper dam and gold mohur.
- Land revenue reformed: direct measurement (zabti/bandobast system).
- Postal system (dak chowki) introduced.
- Died at Kalinjar siege (1545); empire quickly declined without him.
Akbar
Pan-India Mughal consolidation
1556–1605 AD
- Second Battle of Panipat (1556) — Akbar/Bairam Khan vs Hemu (Hindu ruler serving Surs). PYQ
- Mansabdari system: Zat (personal rank) + Sawar (cavalry rank); non-hereditary.
- Din-i-Ilahi (1582) — personal syncretic faith; not imposed; very few followers.
- Ibadat Khana (1575) — house of worship at Fatehpur Sikri; inter-religious debates.
- Abolished jizya (1564) and pilgrim tax; married Rajput princess (Jodha Bai).
- Todar Mal — revenue minister; standardised measurement; Ain-i-Dahsala (10-year average revenue).
- Navratnas: Abul Fazl, Faizi, Birbal, Todar Mal, Man Singh, Tansen, Abdul Rahim, Mullah Do Piaza, Fakir Aziao Din.
- Abul Fazl wrote Akbarnama and Ain-i-Akbari.
Jahangir, Shah Jahan, Aurangzeb
Mughal Empire — Later Great Mughals
1605–1707 AD
- Jahangir: Known for justice (Chain of Justice); Nurjahan wielded real power; Thomas Roe (English ambassador). PYQ
- Shah Jahan: Peak of Mughal architecture — Taj Mahal, Red Fort (Delhi), Jama Masjid; Takht-i-Taus (Peacock Throne).
- Aurangzeb (1658–1707): Reimposed jizya (1679); anti-music policy; annexed Bijapur & Golconda (1687).
- Aurangzeb’s Deccan campaigns (~27 years) drained treasury; Marathas under Shivaji/successors resisted.
- Aurangzeb’s death (1707) → rapid decline; Later Mughals nominal rulers.
Jahangir (1605–27)
Shah Jahan (1628–58)
Aurangzeb (1658–1707)
Maratha Empire
Deccan + expanding to North
1674–1818 AD
- Shivaji (1627–80) — founded Maratha kingdom; crowned at Raigad (1674). PYQ
- Administrative system: Ashtapradhan (8-minister council); Peshwa = Prime Minister.
- Revenue reform: Abolished jagir system; chauth (1/4 of revenue) & sardeshmukhi (1/10).
- Guerrilla warfare (ganimi kava); used Western Ghats geography effectively.
- Peshwa period (1713–1818): Balaji Vishwanath, Baji Rao I expanded empire to Delhi.
- Third Battle of Panipat (1761) — Marathas vs Ahmad Shah Durrani (Abdali); Marathas decisively defeated; broke Maratha power in North.
- Three Anglo-Maratha Wars (1775–82, 1803–05, 1817–18); ended with British supremacy.
Modern India
British India & Independence
1757–1947 ADBritish Conquest: Key Battles
India-wide
1757–1849 AD
- Battle of Plassey (1757) — Clive vs Siraj-ud-Daulah (Bengal Nawab); British victory through treachery of Mir Jafar. PYQ
- Battle of Buxar (1764) — British vs combined forces of Mir Qasim, Shuja-ud-Daulah, Shah Alam II; more decisive than Plassey.
- Anglo-Mysore Wars (4 wars, 1767–1799): Hyder Ali then Tipu Sultan; Fourth War — Tipu killed at Seringapatam (1799).
- Anglo-Sikh Wars (1845–46, 1848–49): Punjab annexed after Second Sikh War.
- Doctrine of Lapse (Dalhousie) — annexed Satara, Nagpur, Jhansi, Awadh.
1857 Revolt & Aftermath
North & Central India
1857–1858 AD
- Immediate cause: Enfield rifles with greased cartridges (pig/cow fat). PYQ
- Started: Meerut (10 May 1857); spread to Delhi, Kanpur, Lucknow, Jhansi, Bareilly.
- Key leaders: Bahadur Shah Zafar (nominal), Rani Lakshmibai (Jhansi), Nana Sahib (Kanpur), Tatya Tope, Kunwar Singh (Bihar).
- Aftermath: East India Company dissolved; Crown Rule began (Queen’s Proclamation, Nov 1858).
- Secretary of State for India created; Governor-General became Viceroy.
UPSC Special
Contemporary Rulers — UPSC Favourite
Cross-era Reference
This is the most UPSC-tested concept in dynasty timeline. Questions ask: “Which of the following rulers was/were contemporary to X?” Memorise this table carefully.
📍 Ancient Period — Contemporary Rulers
| Ruler / Dynasty (North) | Period | Contemporary (South/Other) |
|---|---|---|
| Bimbisara (Haryanka, Magadha) | 544–492 BC | Mahavira (died ~527 BC), Gautama Buddha (died ~483 BC) — both contemporaries |
| Chandragupta Maurya | 322–298 BC | Seleucus Nicator (Macedonian), Chandragupta sent embassy to Ptolemy |
| Ashoka | 268–232 BC | Antiochus II (Syria), Ptolemy II (Egypt), Magas (Cyrene), Alexander II (Macedonia) — mentioned in edicts |
| Satavahanas (Deccan) | 235 BC–220 AD | Kushanas (North), Sakas (West India) — all three overlapping |
| Kanishka I (Kushana) | ~78–101 AD | Charaka (physician), Ashvaghosha (poet), Nagarjuna (philosopher) |
| Chandragupta II (Gupta) | 375–415 AD | Vakatakas (Deccan ally), Fa-hien (Chinese pilgrim), Rudrasimha III (last Saka — defeated) |
| Samudragupta | 335–375 AD | Meghavarna (Sri Lanka — sent embassy), Daivaputra Shahi (NW India) |
📍 Medieval Period — Contemporary Rulers
| Ruler / Dynasty (North/Deccan) | Period | Contemporary (South/Other) |
|---|---|---|
| Pulakeshin II (Chalukya) | 610–642 AD | Harsha (North — defeated at Narmada), Pallava Narasimhavarman I (who killed him) |
| Rajaraja I (Chola) | 985–1014 AD | Mahmud of Ghazni (North), Paramardideva (Chandella) |
| Krishnadeva Raya (Vijayanagara) | 1509–1529 AD | Babur (North), Ismail Adil Shah (Bijapur — defeated), Portuguese Albuquerque |
| Akbar (Mughal) | 1556–1605 AD | Elizabeth I of England, Timurid rulers in Central Asia, Ali Adil Shah (Bijapur) |
| Aurangzeb (Mughal) | 1658–1707 AD | Shivaji (Maratha), Guru Gobind Singh (Sikh), Chhatrapati Sambhaji |
| Shivaji (Maratha) | 1627–1680 AD | Aurangzeb (Mughal), Bijapur Sultanate (enemy), Golconda Sultanate |
📍 Regional Contemporaries — Frequently Confused
| Dynasty | Active Period | Region | Key Contemporaries |
|---|---|---|---|
| Hoysala | 10th–14th c. | Karnataka | Yadava (Maharashtra), Kakatiya (Telangana), Chola (Tamil Nadu) — all 12th–13th c. |
| Kakatiya | 12th–14th c. | Telangana (Warangal) | Hoysala, Yadava, later Delhi Sultanate (Alauddin, Muhammad bin Tughlaq) |
| Yadava of Devagiri | 9th–14th c. | Maharashtra | Hoysala, Kakatiya, Delhi Sultanate — all overlapping |
| Gahadavala | Late 11th–12th c. | Kanauj/Varanasi | Chauhans (Rajasthan), Paramaras (Malwa), Chandellas — all Rajput era |
| Palas (Bengal) | 750–1174 AD | Bengal, Bihar | Pratiharas (NW), Rashtrakutas (Deccan) — tripartite struggle |
| Rashtrakutas | 753–982 AD | Deccan (Malkhed) | Palas (Bengal), Pratiharas (NW), Cholas (South) |
| Chalukyas of Kalyani | 973–1189 AD | Deccan | Cholas (South — rival), Paramaras (North), later Hoysalas split from them |