The Guhil–Sisodia Dynasty of Mewar

Mewar is the one Rajput state that never gave a daughter to the Mughals and never attended Akbar’s court in person. Its rulers held Chittor for most of eight centuries, lost it three times to sack and jauhar, and built a new capital at Udaipur. This part follows the line from Guhil and Bappa Rawal through Hammir, Kumbha, Sanga and Pratap to the merger of 1948.

Mewar at a glance

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Feature	Details
Region	Present Udaipur, Rajsamand, Chittorgarh and parts of Bhilwara and Pratapgarh. The land to the south (Dungarpur and Banswara) was Vagad, a separate state
Old name	Medpat (Medhpat), and the name became Mewar. Lord Eklingji is called Medpateshwar, the lord of Medpat
Ruling clan	The Guhilas (Guhilots). After 1303 the line of the Sisodias
Titles	Rawal for the early rulers, Rana from Hammir, later Maharana, and Hindua Suraj (sun of the Hindus)
Deity	Eklingji, a form of Shiva. The ruler rules as his Diwan
Capitals	Nagda, Ahar, Chittor, then Udaipur (1559). Kumbhalgarh, Gogunda and Chavand served in war
Branches	The Sisodia houses of Dungarpur, Banswara and Pratapgarh (Part 5)

Origin of the Guhilas

The family tradition makes Guhil the founder of the line. The question of his descent has produced several views.

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View	Held by	Basis
Iranian descent	Abul Fazl	Descent from the Iranian king Naushervan
Vallabhi connection	James Tod	Links the clan to the rulers of Vallabhi in Gujarat
Brahmin descent	Muhnot Nainsi, Gopinath Sharma	Descent from the Nagar Brahmin Guhadatta. Rana Kumbha himself accepts this in his commentary on the Gita Govind
Kshatriya (Suryavanshi)	Gaurishankar Ojha	An old Indian ruling family. Ojha puts Guhil’s rule at about 566 CE

The records of the early line include the Samoli inscription (646 CE) of Shiladitya, the Nagda inscription (661 CE) of Aparajita, and the Atpur inscription (977 CE) of Shaktikumar at Ahar. The family is said to have moved from Gujarat towards the plains around Nagda in the 6th and 7th centuries.

The early Guhilas (6th to 12th century)

Bappa Rawal (c. 734–753)

The Raj Prashasti and the Mewar chronicles make Bappa Rawal the real founder of the kingdom’s greatness.

• Name. Gaurishankar Ojha says his real name was Kalabhoj and that Bappa was a title. Shyamaldas in Vir Vinod also holds that Bappa is a title.
• Chittor (734). He took Chittor from Man Mori, the Mori (Maurya) chief, whose service he is said to have been in. He made Nagda his capital.
• Eklingji. He built the temple of Eklingji at Kailashpuri, near Nagda, and the Guhilas have worshipped Eklingji as their tutelary deity since. His guru was the Pashupata ascetic Harit Rashi.
• Against the Arabs. In the age of Arab raids from Sindh, Bappa joined Nagabhata I of the Pratiharas and Jaysimha in an alliance that stopped the Arabs. C. V. Vaidya compares him with Charles Martel, who checked the Muslim advance in Europe.
• Coins. Gold coins are attributed to him.

Allat to Ambaprasad

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Ruler	Key points
Khuman II (c. 828–853)	Remembered in the chronicles as the defender of Mewar against 24 attacks, and his reign as a golden age
Allat (c. 943–953)	Moved the centre to Ahar (Aghatpur), near present Udaipur. Pressure from the Paramaras of Malwa made Chittor insecure
Shaktikumar (c. 977–993)	The Atpur inscription (977 CE) lists his ancestors
Ambaprasad (c. 993–1007)	Paramara power overshadowed Chittor in this age

Through the 11th and 12th centuries Chittor stayed under Malwa and Gujarat’s influence. The Chalukyas and Paramaras of Malwa disputed the fort.

Samant Singh and the split

In the 12th century, Samant Singh (c. 1172–1179) moved to Bagar (the Dungarpur area). The family later divided: the line of Rahap formed the Sisodia branch and Mahap is said to have founded the Dungarpur kingdom (traditional accounts).

The Rawals of Chittor (13th and 14th centuries)

Rawal Jaitra Singh (1213–1253)

• Chittor. He recovered Chittor from the Malwa Rajputs and made it his capital. Nagda had been destroyed by Iltutmish, and Chittor became the new capital of the Guhilas.
• Bhutala (1227). He defeated Iltutmish’s army at Bhutala. The battle is described in Jaisingh Suri’s Hammir Mad Mardana, where Iltutmish is called Hammir (the amir).
• Praise. Gaurishankar Ojha calls him the most brilliant and powerful ruler of Mewar during the Slave dynasty, praised even by his adversaries.

Rawal Samar Singh (1273–1302)

Built a wall around Mahasati in Chittor. His son Kumbh Karan went to Nepal, where tradition says his descendants became the royal family.

Rawal Ratan Singh (1302–1303): the first jauhar

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Point	Details
Siege	Alauddin Khalji besieged Chittor from January 1303 and took it on 26 August 1303 after about eight months
Cause	Imperial ambition and Chittor’s position on the route to Malwa and Gujarat. The later tradition of the Padmavat (1540) by Malik Muhammad Jayasi names the desire for Rani Padmini. Dasharatha Sharma gives it some credence, but a large number of historians do not
The fall	Ratan Singh and his commanders Gora and Badal died fighting. Rani Padmini and a great number of women performed jauhar
Source	Amir Khusrau‘s Khazain-ul-Futuh, a contemporary account of Alauddin’s reign
Aftermath	Alauddin gave Chittor to his son Khizr Khan and renamed it Khizrabad. Ratan Singh was the last Rawal of the Guhila line

Rana Hammir (1326–1364)

• The Sisodia line. Hammir was a jagirdar of Sisoda, so his line is called the Sisodias. His grandfather Lakshman Singh, with his sons, died fighting Alauddin at Chittor in 1303.
• Chittor (1326). After the Khalji period the Sonigara chief Maldeo of Jalore held Chittor for the Delhi Sultan. Hammir, who had married Maldeo’s widowed daughter, planned the overthrow of Maldeo and took Chittor in 1326, re-establishing the Guhila rule.
• Singoli. Tradition credits him with defeating the army of Muhammad bin Tughluq at Singoli. Rana Kumbha’s Kirtistambh Prashasti calls him Vishamghati Panchanan (the lion in difficult battles).
• Works. He built the Annapurna Mata temple in Chittor Fort.
• Memory. Called the Liberator of Mewar. From him the rulers use the title Rana.

Kshetra Singh and Lakha

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Ruler	Key points
Kshetra Singh (Khetsi) (1364–1382)	Recovered Mandalgarh, Ajmer, Jahazpur, Mandsaur and the area of Chappan. A victory at Bakrol is credited to him
Maharana Lakha (1382–1421)	The Jawar mines of silver and lead brought prosperity. During his reign a banjara, Pichhu, built Pichola Lake. Defeated an imperial force at Badnor. His marriage to Hansa Bai is dealt with below

Chunda and Mokal

Lakha married Hansa Bai, the sister of Ranmal of Marwar, who had been intended for his son Chunda. The condition of the marriage was that Hansa Bai’s son would inherit Mewar. Chunda accepted this and gave up his claim, and is called the Bhishma of Mewar. As compensation, his lance symbol (bhala) is placed before the Rana’s monogram in grants issued to vassals, and the head of the Chundawats holds a special place at court. Not to be confused with Rao Chunda of Marwar.

Mokal (1421–1433), Hansa Bai’s son, was a minor when he became Rana. Chunda ran the administration, but Hansa Bai grew suspicious and he left. She called in her brother Ranmal, and Chunda later returned and rescued Mokal. The Mewar nobles killed Ranmal in 1438. Mokal himself was murdered in 1433 by his uncle Chacha and Mahapa Panwar.

Maharana Kumbha (1433–1468)

Kumbha made Mewar the strongest state of Rajasthan in the 15th century. He made Chittor and Kumbhalgarh his centres of power and earned the trust of the feudal chiefs of Mewar.

Wars and diplomacy

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Year	Event
After 1438	Mewar held Mandore after Ranmal’s death. It was recovered by Jodha in 1453, and the Awal-Babal treaty and the marriage of Jodha’s daughter Shringar De to Kumbha’s son Raimal settled Marwar’s border with Mewar
1437	Battle of Sarangpur. Kumbha defeated Mahmud Khalji I of Malwa and took him prisoner. Sources differ on the length of the captivity
1440s	Vijay Stambh raised at Chittor to mark the victory
1453–1456	Succession dispute at Nagaur. Kumbha’s intervention brought Gujarat’s Sultan into the quarrel, and Gujarat was defeated
1456	Treaty of Champaner. Mahmud Khalji I of Malwa and Qutbuddin of Gujarat agreed to attack Kumbha and divide his kingdom
1457–58	The joint attack failed. Kumbha, with his political skill, created differences between the two allies

Forts and temples

• Forts. Kumbha is credited with 32 forts in defence of Mewar, among them Kumbhalgarh, Achalgarh (Abu), Basantgarh, Bhainsrorgarh and Machan. The Sirohi forts are also credited to him in some accounts.
• Kumbhalgarh (1443–1458). Built on the Aravalli in the western edge of Mewar, with a wall of about 36 km. The architect was Mandan. It is the birthplace of Maharana Pratap and the refuge of Mewar’s rulers in danger.
• Vijay Stambh (1440–1448). A tower of nine storeys, about 37 metres high, in Chittorgarh, dedicated to Vishnu. It carries the Kirtistambh Prashasti, composed by Atri and his son Mahesh.
• Temples. The Kumbhaswami and Adivarah temples at Chittor, Shringar Chanvari, rebuilt Eklingji, and the temples at Ranakpur. The Ranakpur Jain temple (Trailokya Dipak), raised under Kumbha’s patronage, is among the finest in India.

Scholar and patron

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Work or figure	Details
Sangitraj	Kumbha’s own great work on music
Sangit Mimansa, Sudaprabandha, Kamaraj Ratisara	Other works credited to him
Commentaries	On Jayadeva’s Gita Govind (Rasikapriya), Chandishataka and the Sangit Ratnakar
Ekalinga Mahatmya	By Kanha Vyas, Kumbha’s court writer. It describes his scholarship in the Vedas, smritis, mimamsa, upanishads, grammar and politics
Mandan	Architect and author of works on architecture such as Rajvallabh
Titles	Maharajadhiraj, Raorai, Danguru, Rajguru, Paramguru, Halaguru, Abhinava Bharatacharya, Hindu Suratran

Death

In his last years Kumbha suffered from a mental disorder. His son Uda (Udai Singh I) killed him in 1468.

From Uda to Sanga (1468–1509)

• Udai Singh I (Uda) (1468–1473) was defeated by his brother Raimal in the battles of Jawar, Dayampur and Pangarh, and the Mewar nobles turned against him as a patricide.
• Rana Raimal (1473–1509) restored order and rebuilt the Eklingji temple in its present form. His marriage to Shringar De, a daughter of Rao Jodha, ended the conflict with the Rathores.
• The sons. Prithviraj, Jaimal and Sanga each claimed the throne. Sanga emerged the winner and became Rana in 1509.

Maharana Sanga (1509–1528)

Sangram Singh, known as Rana Sanga, made Mewar the foremost power of northern India. He was Hindupat, the leader of the Hindu chiefs, and his body carried the marks of about 80 wounds, one arm lost, one eye lost and a leg lame.

Conquests

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Year	Battle	Opponent and result
1517	Khatoli (Hadoti)	Ibrahim Lodi of Delhi defeated. Sanga lost an arm and was wounded in the leg
1518–19	Dholpur (Bari)	Ibrahim Lodi’s army defeated again. Sanga’s authority extended to eastern Rajasthan
1519	Gagron	Mahmud Khalji II of Malwa defeated and brought to Chittor as a prisoner. Medini Rai, whom Mahmud had thrown out, took refuge in Mewar, and Sanga gained much of eastern Malwa
1517–20	Idar	Intervened in a succession dispute there. Sanga’s ally Rai Mal was put on the throne. He defeated the Gujarat Sultan
1521	Ranthambore	Sanga brought it under Mewar

Sanga and Babur: the road to Khanwa

• The Baburnama’s charge. According to the Baburnama, Sanga had offered to join Babur against Ibrahim Lodi. When Babur took Delhi and Agra, Sanga made no move, and Babur accuses him of breaking the agreement. Rajput tradition says the opposite: Sanga was already strong and it was Babur who sought an ally. Gopinath Sharma rejects the story of an envoy from Sanga, and Satish Chandra suggests that Sanga may have expected a long war between Babur and the Lodis, or a withdrawal by Babur after plunder, as Timur had done. Proof of any agreement is lacking.
• Two threats. After Panipat (1526), Babur saw danger from two sides: Sanga and the Afghans of the east. Humayun was sent east against the Afghans and was recalled in haste when Sanga advanced towards Agra in early 1527.
• Babur’s estimate. Babur ranked Sanga among the great Hindu rulers of India, along with Krishnadevaraya of Vijayanagara.

From Bayana to Khanwa (February to March 1527)

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Stage	Details
Babur’s detachments	Babur sent forces to take Dholpur, Gwalior and Bayana, all part of Sanga’s sphere
Bayana (February 1527)	Sanga besieged Bayana, held by the Afghan governor Nizam Khan. The relief force sent by Babur under Abdul Aziz was defeated, and Bayana fell to the Rajputs. In the same weeks Rajput detachments retook other places such as Gwalior and Tijara
Bhusawar	Sanga then moved to Bhusawar, cutting Babur’s supply line from Delhi and Kabul, and spent about a month in preparation. Historians see this delay as a mistake, since it gave Babur time to recover
Panic in Babur’s camp	Reports of Rajput valour spread fear. His Afghan soldiers began to leave, the Turks asked to return to Kabul, and an astrologer’s gloomy prediction added to the unease. Babur wrote that no manly word or brave counsel was heard from anyone
Babur’s response	He gave the war a religious colour: he renounced wine, broke his drinking cups and poured out his liquor, and called it a holy war. According to the Baburnama he also remitted the tamgha tax for Muslims
Peace offer	Babur proposed Bayana as the boundary between them. Sanga’s chiefs advised him to refuse

The Rajput confederacy at Khanwa

The sources speak of more than 120 chieftains answering Sanga’s call. Tod describes seven rajas of the highest rank, nine raos and 104 lesser chiefs, with about 500 war elephants. The figures given by later writers (Har Bilas Sarda puts Sanga’s strength at about 110,000, including 10,000 Afghan horse) are estimates, and the sources disagree widely. The names, however, tell a clear story: almost every house of Rajputana, and several Afghan and Muslim chiefs, stood behind Sanga.

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State or chief	Who and what role	Notes
Mewar	Rana Sanga, supreme commander	Struck by an arrow or bullet and carried from the field
Marwar (Jodhpur)	Rao Ganga sent about 4,000 men under his son Maldeo, who held the left wing	Maldeo helped carry the wounded Sanga from the field. Babur names Rao Ganga’s force
Amber	Prithviraj Singh I Kachhwaha, Sanga’s brother-in-law	Carried the wounded Sanga to safety. He died on 4 November 1527
Sirohi	Rao Akheraj Deora	Helped carry Sanga away with Maldeo and Prithviraj
Vagad (Dungarpur)	Rawal Udai Singh	Killed in the battle
Sadri (Mewar)	Raj Rana Ajja Jhala	Took Sanga’s royal insignia and led the army after Sanga fell. Killed
Delwara	Sajja Jhala	Killed
Merta	Rao Viramdeva	Named by Babur among the chiefs
Bikaner	Kunwar Kalyanmal, heir of Bikaner	Led about 3,000 men in the tradition of the sources
Bundi (Hadoti)	Narpat (Narbad) Hada	Contingent of the Hadas of Bundi
Idar	Bharmal	The prince Sanga had helped to the Idar throne
Gagron	The Khichi Chauhan chief	Gagron was a Mewar dependency after 1519
Chanderi (Malwa)	Medini Rai	Sanga’s ally. Fell fighting Babur at Chanderi in January 1528
Raisen and Bhilsa	Silhadi Tomar	Said to have deserted to Babur during the battle. Some historians doubt that this ever happened
Mewat	Hasan Khan Mewati	A Muslim ruler on Sanga’s side. Killed
The Afghans	Mahmud Lodi, brother of Ibrahim Lodi	Joined with about 10,000 Afghan horse, hoping to recover Delhi
Chauhans	Chandrabhan Chauhan and Manik Chand Chauhan	Both killed
Mewar’s nobles	Ratan Singh Chundawat, the charan Haridas Kesaria	Killed in the battle

Babur denounced the Afghans who joined the confederacy as kafirs and murtads. The nobles of Jodhpur, Amber and Sirohi who brought Sanga out of the field were the same chiefs who had come to his support, and their rescue of him is part of the story of Khanwa as the Rajasthan tradition tells it.

The battle (16–17 March 1527)

• Place and date. Khanwa, about 60 km west of Agra (in present Bharatpur district). Persian sources give 16 March, and the Rajasthan tradition gives 17 March.
• Babur’s position. A fortified camp: carts joined with iron chains (stronger than the leather straps used at Panipat), mantlets, ditches on the flanks and tripods linked with rawhide ropes. Behind it stood matchlockmen, falconets and mortars under Ustad Ali Quli, then the heavy horsemen. About 2,000 elite horsemen were kept in reserve for the tulughma (flanking move). Babur’s Indian allies were on his left. His divisions were led by Humayun, Mahdi Khwaja and Babur himself.
• The Rajput charge. Sanga charged in the traditional manner. The Mughal guns brought down great numbers, and the noise of the muskets frightened the Rajput horses and elephants, which trampled their own men. Unable to break the centre, Sanga turned to the flanks, and the fighting there lasted about three hours.
• Tulughma. Babur’s flanking attack was twice pushed back by the relentless Rajput horsemen.
• Sanga falls. In the middle of the battle Sanga was hit and fell unconscious. Babur wrote that the “accursed infidels” stood confounded for an hour. Ajja Jhala took the royal insignia and led the Rajput army while Sanga was hidden in a circle of trusted men.
• The collapse. Babur saw the weakness of the Rajput centre and ordered a general attack. The Rajputs, with most senior commanders dead, made a last desperate charge on the flanks and were cut down.
• After the victory. Babur had a tower of skulls raised, a practice from Timur’s day, and took the title Ghazi. The Mughals were too exhausted to chase the Rajputs, and Babur gave up the idea of invading Mewar.

Why Sanga lost, and what changed

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Cause	Details
Gunpowder	Babur’s artillery, matchlocks and chained carts were unknown to Indian armies of the day
Method of fighting	A cavalry charge was no answer to a fortified gun line. The elephants and horses panicked under fire
The delay	Sanga’s month at Bhusawar gave Babur time to restore his army’s morale
A loose confederacy	The allies fought under Sanga but without a joint command or common plan. Defections are alleged, though disputed
Babur’s leadership	The religious call, the vow against wine and the discipline of his army raised its spirit

Consequences.

• Babur’s hold on north India became firm. Agra, not Kabul, became the centre of Mughal power.
• Mewar lost its lead among the Rajput states. The place was filled by Maldeo of Marwar.
• Medini Rai was defeated and killed at Chanderi in January 1528 after refusing Babur’s offer of another fief. Hasan Khan Mewati was killed in the battle, and Mewat passed to the Mughals.
• Rajput power was not crushed for ever. Babur did not enter Mewar, and the Sisodias recovered in the next reigns.

Sanga’s last journey: Baswa, Irich, Kalpi and Mandalgarh

Four places mark the end of Sanga’s life. The standard Rajasthan account, followed in the state’s textbooks and in most exam notes, is as follows.

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Place	Where	What happened
Baswa	Dausa district, Rajasthan	The unconscious Sanga was carried out of the field by Maldeo Rathore, Prithviraj Kachhwaha and Akheraj Deora and brought here, in a palanquin, for treatment. He recovered, learned the result of the battle, and took a vow not to return to Chittor until he had defeated Babur and taken Delhi. A platform (chabutra) at Baswa is called his memorial
Irich	A village near Kalpi, Jalaun district	Sanga marched against Babur again and set up camp here, planning the war, probably the help of Medini Rai at Chanderi. His nobles, who saw a new war against Babur as a certain disaster, poisoned him
Kalpi	Jalaun district, Uttar Pradesh	The poison took effect, and Sanga died here on 30 January 1528
Mandalgarh	Bhilwara district, Rajasthan	His body was brought back and cremated at Mandalgarh. The chhatri (cenotaph) of Sanga, with eight pillars, stands here and is said to have been built by Ashok Parmar

• The vow. He is also said to have given up the turban and wrapped a cloth around his head.
• Return of the body. The tradition says that the funeral party halted for a night at Baswa on the way to Mandalgarh, and that this halt gave Baswa its monument.
• Doubts. Some accounts add Ranthambore as a place of recovery. There is no contemporary evidence for the poison, and some historians hold that Sanga died of his wounds and the strain of the march. A few books give Baswa itself as the place of death. The Kalpi account is the one used in Rajasthan’s textbooks.
• Succession. His son Ratan Singh II became Rana.

Mirabai

Sanga’s son Bhojraj married Mirabai, the daughter of a Rathore of Merta. She became one of the great saints of the bhakti movement, and her songs are among the best known in Rajasthan.

The fall and rise of Chittor (1528–1572)

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Ruler	Key points
Ratan Singh II (1528–1531)	Son of Sanga
Vikramaditya (1531–1536)	Bahadur Shah of Gujarat sacked Chittor in 1534–35. Udai Singh was sent to Bundi for safety. Rani Karnavati, Sanga’s widow, is said to have sent a rakhi to Humayun, who arrived too late. The second jauhar of Chittor was performed
Banbir (1536–1540)	Killed Vikramaditya and wanted to kill the child Udai Singh. The nurse Panna Dhai sacrificed her own son Chandan in his place and carried Udai Singh to Kumbhalgarh
Udai Singh II (1537–1572)	Crowned at Kumbhalgarh with the support of the nobles and Maldeo of Marwar

Udai Singh II (1537–1572)

• 1544. He handed the keys of Chittor to Sher Shah Suri, on the condition that the people of Mewar would not be harmed.
• Udaipur (1559). Founded the city, built the Udai Sagar lake and the palaces of Moti Magri. Udaipur became the capital.
• Baz Bahadur. In 1562 he sheltered Baz Bahadur, the fugitive ruler of Malwa. Akbar used this as a pretext.
• Siege of Chittor (1567–68). On the advice of his sardars Udai Singh left the fort in the hands of Jaimal Rathore (of Badnor, a Mertia Rathore) and Patta (of Kelwa), and went to the hills of Gogunda. Akbar’s camp was set up in October 1567, and after a four-month siege the Mughals entered the fort on 23 February 1568. Jaimal was killed by a musket shot fired, according to Mughal accounts, by Akbar himself. The third jauhar followed. Akbar’s army killed a large number of civilians, estimated at 25,000 to 40,000. Impressed by Jaimal and Patta, Akbar had stone statues of the two on elephants set up outside the Agra Fort.
• Death. Udai Singh died at Gogunda on 28 February 1572.

Maharana Pratap (1572–1597)

Born on 9 May 1540 at Kumbhalgarh. Pratap Jayanti is celebrated on Jyestha Shukla 3. Udai Singh had named Jagmal as heir, but the nobles, led by the Chundawat chief Krishnadas and Ramshah Tanwar, installed Pratap at Gogunda in 1572.

The choice

Akbar wished Mewar to accept his overlordship. Pratap could accept it and live in comfort, or refuse and face hardship. He refused. He organised the nobles and the Bhils, gave Bhils important positions in his army, and moved from Gogunda to Kumbhalgarh to avoid Mughal attention.

Akbar’s four embassies

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Year	Envoy
1572	Jalal Khan Qurchi
1573	Man Singh of Amber
1573	Bhagwant Das of Amber
1573	Todar Mal

Pratap turned down all four, and war became inevitable.

Haldighati: the build-up

• Pratap’s base. After Akbar’s embassies failed, Pratap moved from Kumbhalgarh to Gogunda, near Udaipur, and awaited the Mughal attack.
• Man Singh’s base. Akbar sent Man Singh of Amber, a Kachhwaha, to deal with the Sisodias. Man Singh set up his base at Mandalgarh, collected his army and marched on Gogunda. Akbar had gone to Ajmer to oversee the campaign.
• The ground. About 14 miles (23 km) north of Gogunda lies the village of Khamnor, separated from Gogunda by a spur of the Aravalli called Haldighati, named for its rocks, which when crushed give a yellow sand like turmeric (haldi). Pratap placed his army at the mouth of the pass.
• The start. The battle began about three hours after sunrise on 18 June 1576. The eyewitness Badayuni gives the date as 21 June.

The two armies

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Point	Pratap’s army	Man Singh’s army
Strength	Badayuni (an eyewitness with the Mughals): about 3,000 horse and 400 Bhil archers	Jadunath Sarkar: about 10,000, of whom 4,000 were Kachhwaha Rajputs, 1,000 other Hindus and 5,000 Muslims of the imperial army. Satish Chandra: 5,000 to 10,000
Mewari tradition	20,000	80,000. Sarkar accepts the ratio of four to one but thinks both figures exaggerated
Weapons	Cavalry, elephants and bows. The Rajputs had no firearms	A good number of muskets. No heavy artillery. War elephants

Pratap’s formation.

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Division	Commander	Strength
Van (haraval)	Hakim Khan Sur with his Afghans, Bhim Singh Dodia, and Ramdas Rathore (son of Jaimal of Chittor)	About 800
Right wing	Ramshah Tomar (former ruler of Gwalior) and his three sons, with the minister Bhamashah and his brother Tarachand	About 500
Left wing	Bida (Man) Jhala and the Jhala clan	About 400
Centre	Pratap himself	About 1,300
Rear	The Bhil archers under Rana Punja of Panarwa	About 400

Bards, priests and other civilians also took part in the fighting.

The Mughal formation.

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Division	Commander
Skirmishers (85)	Sayyid Hashim of Barha
Vanguard	Jagannath Kachhwaha with Kachhwaha Rajputs, and Ali Asaf Khan with the Central Asian Mughals
Advance reserve	Madho Singh Kachhwaha
Centre	Man Singh himself
Left wing	Mulla Qazi Khan and Rao Lonkarn of Sambhar, with the Shaikhzadas of Fatehpur Sikri
Right wing (the strongest)	The Sayyids of Barha
Rear guard	Mihtar Khan

Rajputs fought on both sides. Badayuni, who was present, asked Asaf Khan how to tell friendly Rajputs from enemy ones. Asaf Khan replied that he should shoot whomever he liked, since whoever fell on either side would be a gain for Islam.

How the battle went

1. Pratap’s charge. The Mewar charge broke the Mughal wings and centre, and the Mughals fell back. Abul Fazl admits a retreat in the early stage. The Mughals rallied near Rati Talai, later known as Rakt Talai (the pool of blood).
2. The turning point. Mewar pressed the Mughal wings and the front broke, but the reserves held the charge. Man Singh then led the imperial rear guard into the fight, and Mihtar Khan beat the kettle-drums and spread a rumour that the emperor’s reinforcements were arriving. The Mughal musketeers also broke the charge of the Mewar elephants.
3. Pratap in the thick. According to the Rajasthani accounts, Madho Singh Kachhwaha wounded the Rana, who in turn killed Bahlol Khan, a Mughal officer.
4. The retreat. Mewar’s tired soldiers began to desert on hearing of the reinforcements. The nobles, finding the day lost, persuaded the wounded Pratap to leave. Jhala Bida (Man Singh) took the Rana’s place, wearing his royal emblems, and was mistaken by the Mughals for Pratap. He was killed, but his sacrifice gave Pratap time to escape.
5. Chetak. Pratap’s horse Chetak was wounded and carried him out of the pass. Chetak died at Balicha, where a memorial stands. By popular tradition Chetak had leapt onto the elephant of Man Singh earlier in the day. Sarkar regards the story as an exaggeration.

The fallen and the casualties

Mewar’s chiefs killed included Ramshah Tomar and his three sons, Hakim Khan Sur, Bhim Singh Dodia, Ramdas Rathore, Man Sonagara, Netasingh, Sankardas and Bida Jhala.

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Source	Casualties
Abul Fazl and Nizamuddin	Mughals: 150 dead and 350 wounded. Mewar: 500 dead
Badayuni	500 dead, of whom 120 were Muslims
Jadunath Sarkar	The Mewari sources suggest about 1,600 casualties, 46 per cent of Pratap’s strength
Later Rajasthani chroniclers	Raised the figure to 20,000

Legends and lore of Haldighati

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Name	Tradition
Chetak	Pratap’s horse. Died at Balicha. His memorial is at Haldighati
Ramprasad	Pratap’s war elephant, said to have been captured by the Mughals and renamed Peer Prasad
Shakti Singh	Pratap’s brother, in the Mughal service, is said to have saved Pratap from two pursuing horsemen and given him his own horse
Jhala Bida	Wore the royal insignia and drew the Mughals away
Names of the field	Khamnor (Abul Fazl), Gogunda (Badayuni), Haldighati (Tod)

After the battle

• Man Singh did not pursue. Man Singh did not allow the imperial army to chase Pratap. Rima Hooja thinks it may have been out of personal respect for Pratap. Akbar reprimanded him, and he was kept away from court for some time.
• Gogunda. The Mughals took Pratap’s temporary capital Gogunda, though only for a short time.
• Akbar’s campaign. Akbar then led a sustained campaign against the Rana, and much of Mewar passed under Mughal control. Pressure was put on his allies and on other Rajput chiefs, and Pratap was slowly isolated.
• Kumbhalgarh (1578). The fort fell to Shahbaz Khan.
• Recovery. When Akbar’s attention turned elsewhere after 1585, Pratap won back most of Mewar, as copper plates and inscriptions of the period show.

Haldighati in historiography

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View	Held by	Argument
A Mughal victory	Jadunath Sarkar, most Persian chronicles	The Mughals held the field and took Gogunda, but failed to capture Pratap
Inconclusive	Gopinath Sharma; the Rajasthan textbooks	Akbar had the upper hand, but the Mughals did not achieve their purpose
A Mewar victory	Rajasthani tradition and later writers	Pratap’s survival and his later recovery of Mewar made it a moral victory
Local independence	Satish Chandra	At best, an assertion of local independence, a matter of Pratap’s own honour more than of Rajput or Hindu honour

The standard Rajasthan account calls the battle inconclusive. Pratap was not captured, and his guerrilla war of the next two decades is what makes Haldighati an event of lasting importance.

The guerrilla years

• Raids. After Haldighati, Pratap lived in the hills and kept raiding the Mughals. Bhamashah (Bhama Shah Kavadia) is remembered for placing his wealth at his disposal.
• 1578. The Mughal general Shahbaz Khan took Kumbhalgarh. Pratap moved to Chavand.
• Sherpur (1580). Pratap’s son Amar Singh attacked a Mughal camp and captured the family of Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan. Pratap sent the women back with honour.
• Dewair (1582). Amar Singh killed the Mughal officer Sultan Khan with a single spear blow, and Pratap gained control of the hill tract. Tod called Dewair the Marathon of Mewar.
• After 1585. Akbar turned elsewhere. Between 1586 and 1597 Pratap recovered most of Mewar from the Mughals, except Chittor and Mandalgarh, and made Chavand his capital.
• Death. Pratap died on 19 January 1597, and the last rites were performed at Badoli near Chavand.

The Mughal treaty and its aftermath (1597–1707)

Maharana Amar Singh I (1597–1620) and the treaty of 1615

Amar Singh fought the Mughals for years. In 1613 Jahangir came to Ajmer and put Prince Khurram (Shah Jahan) in command of the Mewar campaign. The war wore down the nobles, whose jagirs were ruined, and with the help of Prince Karan Singh they pressed Amar Singh for a treaty. It was signed in February 1615.

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Term	Details
Chittor	Returned to the Maharana, on condition that no repair work was done on the fort
Personal attendance	Amar Singh was spared the duty of attending the Mughal court in person
Prince Karan Singh	Went to the Mughal court, received a high mansab, and a contingent of Mewar horse served the emperor
Matrimonial alliance	Mewar was not asked to give a daughter to the Mughals

The treaty ended about 90 years of Mewar–Mughal conflict, counted from Sanga’s day. Amar Singh could not reconcile himself to what he had done, withdrew from state affairs and handed over to Karan Singh. Jahangir counted the treaty among his great achievements.

The Maharanas of the 17th century

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Ruler	Period	Key points
Karan Singh II	1620–1628	Sheltered Prince Khurram at Jag Mandir during his revolt of 1623
Jagat Singh I	1628–1652	Completed Jag Mandir in Lake Pichola and built the Jagdish temple at Udaipur (1651)
Raj Singh I	1652–1680	See below
Jai Singh	1680–1698	Made peace with Aurangzeb in 1681. Built Jaisamand (Dhebar) Lake, one of the largest artificial lakes in Asia

Raj Singh I (1652–1680)

• Repairs at Chittor. He began to repair Chittor soon after he came to the throne. Shah Jahan took it as a breach of the treaty of 1615 and sent about 30,000 men under Sadulla Khan. Raj Singh withdrew, and the Mughals demolished the turrets and towers.
• Neutrality. In the war of succession of 1658 he stayed out. After Aurangzeb’s victory, relations were cordial, and Aurangzeb gave him a mansab of 6000.
• Charumati. In 1660 he married Charumati, a princess of Kishangarh who had been betrothed to Aurangzeb, and offended Aurangzeb.
• Jizya (1679). He protested against the jizya and sided with the Rathores of Marwar in the Mughal–Marwar conflict. Aurangzeb attacked Mewar in 1679–80. Raj Singh died in 1680.
• Rajsamand. Raj Singh built Rajsamand Lake by damming the Gomti. At the Nau Chauki on the north bank he placed the Rajprashasti, a Sanskrit inscription by Ranchhod Bhatt Tailang on 25 black marble slabs, believed to be the longest rock inscription in the world.

Mewar in the 18th century

The Rajput alliance of 1708 and the Hurda Conference

• 1708. Maharana Amar Singh II (1698–1710), Ajit Singh of Marwar and Sawai Jai Singh II of Amber agreed to stand together against the Mughals. Jai Singh married the Mewar princess Chandrakunwar Bai, with an earlier undertaking that her son would be heir to Amber, which later led to the succession war of Jaipur.
• Sangram Singh II (1710–1734). Built Sahelion Ki Bari, the garden of the maidens, at Udaipur.
• Hurda Conference (July 1734). As the Marathas began to enter Rajputana, Sawai Jai Singh II invited the rulers to Hurda (Bhilwara). It was presided over by Maharana Jagat Singh II (1734–1751).

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Point	Details
Present	Jai Singh II, Abhay Singh of Jodhpur, Bakht Singh of Nagaur, Zorawar Singh of Bikaner, Durjan Sal of Kota, Dalel Singh of Bundi, Gopal Das of Karauli, Raj Singh of Kishangarh
Agreement (17 July)	The rulers would maintain unity, an insult to one would be an insult to all, no state would shelter the rebels of another, and the action against the Marathas would begin after the rains, with all gathering at Rampura. A ruler who could not attend would send his son or brother
Result	Failed. Each ruler had his own interests, and solidarity was not possible

Jagat Singh II built the Jag Niwas (Lake Palace) on Pichola.

The decline (1751–1818)

• Succession troubles. After Pratap Singh II (1751–1754) and Raj Singh II (1754–1762), the reign of Ari Singh II (1762–1772) was marked by a civil war, the rivalry of the Chundawat and Shaktawat clans, rival claimants to the throne, and the demands of Maratha commanders.
• Marathas and Pindaris. Mewar was repeatedly raided and forced to pay tribute. Its revenue fell, and its nobles’ jagirs were wasted.
• Bhim Singh (1778–1828). The princess Krishna Kumari, his daughter, was at the centre of the dispute between Jaipur and Jodhpur, and the Pindari chief Amir Khan’s pressure forced him to agree to her death on 21 July 1810 (Part 2).

The British period

The treaty of 1818

Bhim Singh signed a treaty with the East India Company on 13 January 1818, ending the plunder of the Marathas and Pindaris. Mewar paid tribute for a time, and its lost territories were to be restored. Colonel James Tod was the first Political Agent (1818–1822), and his Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan (1829–1832) was based on his years there.

Maharanas of the 19th century

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Ruler	Key points
Swaroop Singh (1842–1861)	The Mewar Bhil Corps was raised at Kherwara in 1841. In 1857 he supported the British and gave shelter to European refugees at Jag Mandir. Issued the Swaroopshahi coin
Shambhu Singh (1861–1874)	Took steps against the practice of sati, and set up a school for girls
Sajjan Singh (1874–1884)	Built Sajjangarh (Monsoon Palace) and promoted the writing of Mewar’s history. Kaviraj Shyamaldas wrote Vir Vinod, a large history of Mewar, under his patronage
Fateh Singh (1884–1930)	Built the Connaught Dam on Lake Dewali, now Fateh Sagar, and the Fateh Prakash Palace in Chittorgarh. Did not attend the Delhi Durbars of 1903 and 1911

The last Maharanas

• Bhupal Singh. Following social unrest in Mewar, Fateh Singh was formally deposed on 28 July 1921, and Bhupal Singh took power (1930–1955 as Maharana). The Mewar Praja Mandal was founded in 1938 under Manikya Lal Verma.
• Integration. Mewar joined the United State of Rajasthan on 18 April 1948, and Bhupal Singh became Rajpramukh. On 1 April 1949, when Greater Rajasthan was formed, his title became Maha Rajpramukh.

Mewar’s great clans and culture

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Name	Details
Chundawats	Descendants of Chunda, Lakha’s eldest son, with Salumbar as their seat. Claimed the right to lead the vanguard
Shaktawats	Descendants of Shakti Singh, Pratap’s brother
Kumbhalgarh, Vijay Stambh, Ranakpur	The great works of Kumbha
Jag Mandir, Jag Niwas, Sahelion Ki Bari	The Udaipur lakeside works of Karan Singh II, Jagat Singh I and II, Sangram Singh II
Raj Prashasti	Ranchhod Bhatt Tailang
Vir Vinod	Kaviraj Shyamaldas

Timeline at a glance

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Date	Event
c. 566 CE	Guhil, according to Ojha
734 CE	Bappa Rawal takes Chittor from Man Mori
977 CE	Atpur inscription of Shaktikumar
1227 CE	Jaitra Singh defeats Iltutmish at Bhutala
1303 CE	Fall of Chittor. First jauhar. End of the Rawals
1326 CE	Hammir recovers Chittor
1437 CE	Kumbha defeats Mahmud Khalji I at Sarangpur
1456–58	Treaty of Champaner and the failed attack on Kumbha
1468 CE	Kumbha murdered
1509 CE	Sanga becomes Rana
1517–1519	Khatoli, Dholpur and Gagron
17 March 1527	Battle of Khanwa
30 January 1528	Death of Sanga at Kalpi. Cremation at Mandalgarh
1534–35	Bahadur Shah sacks Chittor. Second jauhar
1559 CE	Udaipur founded
1567–68	Akbar takes Chittor. Third jauhar
1572 CE	Pratap crowned at Gogunda
18 June 1576	Battle of Haldighati
1582 CE	Battle of Dewair
19 January 1597	Death of Pratap
February 1615	Treaty with Jahangir
1660 CE	Raj Singh marries Charumati
1679–81	War with Aurangzeb. Treaty of 1681
1708 CE	Rajput alliance of Mewar, Marwar and Amber
July 1734	Hurda Conference
1810 CE	Death of Krishna Kumari
13 January 1818	Treaty with the British
1903, 1911	Fateh Singh stays away from the Delhi Durbars
18 April 1948	Mewar joins the Rajasthan Union

Conclusion

Mewar’s history is the history of a state that kept its independence at a high cost. The Guhilas began as a small clan around Nagda, and Bappa Rawal gave them Chittor. The fall of the fort to Alauddin in 1303 ended the line of the Rawals, but within a generation Hammir had restored it under a new name, the Sisodias. Kumbha’s reign was the high point of the 15th century, with its forts, temples, learning and victory over Malwa. Sanga went further and for a short time led the whole of northern Rajputana, but Khanwa in 1527 gave the Mughals the upper hand. The sacks of Chittor in 1534–35 and 1567–68 cost the family its capital, and Udai Singh II built Udaipur in the hills. Pratap’s refusal of Akbar’s terms, Haldighati, and the long guerrilla war made him the symbol of Rajput independence. The treaty of 1615 offered an honourable peace with no matrimonial alliance and no personal attendance at the court, and the Maharanas of the 17th century turned to lakes, temples and inscriptions. The 18th century broke Mewar’s strength through succession struggles and Maratha raids, and the treaty of 1818 brought protection at the cost of sovereignty. In 1948 Mewar joined the Rajasthan Union as the largest state to enter at that stage, and Maharana Bhupal Singh became its Rajpramukh.

Practice questions

Q1. Consider the following statements about the early Guhilas and Rawals of Mewar.

1. Bappa Rawal is said to have taken Chittor from the Mori chief Man Mori in 734 CE.
2. Rawal Jaitra Singh defeated the army of Iltutmish at Bhutala in 1227.
3. Rana Hammir recovered Chittor from Alauddin Khalji in 1303.

Which of the statements given above are correct?

• (a) 1 and 2 only
• (b) 2 and 3 only
• (c) 1 and 3 only
• (d) 1, 2 and 3

Answer: (a). Chittor fell to Alauddin in 1303. Hammir recovered it in 1326 from the Sonigara chief Maldeo.

Q2. Assertion (A): Maharana Kumbha is remembered as both a great builder and a scholar-ruler.

Reason (R): He raised Kumbhalgarh and the Vijay Stambh, and wrote the Sangitraj and commentaries on the Gita Govind.

• (a) Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A
• (b) Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A
• (c) A is true, but R is false
• (d) A is false, but R is true

Answer: (a)

Q3. Match the ruler with the work or event.

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Ruler	Work or event
A. Bappa Rawal	1. Eklingji temple at Kailashpuri
B. Hammir	2. Annapurna temple and recovery of Chittor (1326)
C. Kumbha	3. Vijay Stambh
D. Udai Singh II	4. Founding of Udaipur (1559)

• (a) A-1, B-2, C-3, D-4
• (b) A-2, B-1, C-4, D-3
• (c) A-1, B-3, C-2, D-4
• (d) A-3, B-2, C-1, D-4

Answer: (a)

Q4. Consider the following statements about Rana Sanga.

1. He defeated Ibrahim Lodi at Khatoli in 1517.
2. At Gagron in 1519 he defeated and captured Mahmud Khalji II of Malwa.
3. He defeated Babur at the Battle of Khanwa in 1527.

Which of the statements given above are correct?

• (a) 1 and 2 only
• (b) 2 and 3 only
• (c) 1 and 3 only
• (d) 1, 2 and 3

Answer: (a). Babur won at Khanwa, with artillery and the tulughma tactic.

Q5. Consider the following statements about the sacks of Chittor.

1. The first jauhar followed Alauddin Khalji’s capture of the fort in 1303.
2. The second jauhar followed the attack of Bahadur Shah of Gujarat in 1534–35, when Rani Karnavati was in the fort.
3. The siege of 1567–68 was led by Prince Khurram, and Jaimal was killed in it.

Which of the statements given above are correct?

• (a) 1 and 2 only
• (b) 2 and 3 only
• (c) 1 and 3 only
• (d) 1, 2 and 3

Answer: (a). The siege of 1567–68 was led by Akbar himself.

Q6. Arrange the following events in chronological order.

1. Hurda Conference
2. Battle of Khanwa
3. Treaty between Amar Singh I and Jahangir
4. Battle of Haldighati

• (a) 2, 4, 3, 1
• (b) 4, 2, 3, 1
• (c) 2, 4, 1, 3
• (d) 4, 2, 1, 3

Answer: (a)

Q7. Which of the following statements about Maharana Pratap is NOT correct?

• (a) He was crowned at Gogunda in 1572.
• (b) At Haldighati on 18 June 1576 the Mughal army was commanded by Man Singh of Amber.
• (c) He made Chavand his capital after 1585.
• (d) Before his death in 1597 he recovered the whole of Mewar, including Chittor and Mandalgarh.

Answer: (d). Chittor and Mandalgarh stayed in Mughal hands.

Q8. Match the work with its author.

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Work	Author
A. Rajprashasti	1. Ranchhod Bhatt Tailang
B. Kirtistambh Prashasti	2. Atri and Mahesh
C. Ekalinga Mahatmya	3. Kanha Vyas
D. Vir Vinod	4. Kaviraj Shyamaldas

• (a) A-1, B-2, C-3, D-4
• (b) A-2, B-1, C-4, D-3
• (c) A-1, B-3, C-2, D-4
• (d) A-4, B-2, C-3, D-1

Answer: (a)

Q9. Assess the achievements of Maharana Kumbha as a ruler, builder and patron of learning. (250 words)

Answer pointers: Sarangpur (1437) and the Vijay Stambh; the treaty of Champaner (1456) and how he broke the alliance; settlement with Marwar through Awal-Babal and Shringar De; the 32 forts and Kumbhalgarh under Mandan; Ranakpur and the temples; Sangitraj and the commentaries; Kanha Vyas and the Kirtistambh Prashasti; his titles; his last years and murder.

Q10. Examine the role of Rana Sanga in the resistance to Babur, and explain the causes of his defeat at Khanwa. (250 words)

Answer pointers: the victories of Khatoli, Dholpur and Gagron; the Baburnama claim and Gopinath Sharma’s rejection; Bayana and Bhusawar; the confederacy of 1527 (Maldeo of Marwar, Prithviraj of Amber, Akheraj of Sirohi, Udai Singh of Vagad, Medini Rai, Hasan Khan Mewati, Mahmud Lodi, Ajja Jhala); Babur’s artillery, chained carts and tulughma; Sanga’s wounds and the rescue; the delay and the loose command; the consequences for Rajput power and Mughal rule.

Q11. Evaluate Maharana Pratap’s resistance to Akbar between 1572 and 1597. (250 words)

Answer pointers: the accession at Gogunda; Akbar’s four embassies; Haldighati (18 June 1576), with Hakim Khan Sur, Jhala Man and Chetak; the loss of Kumbhalgarh (1578); guerrilla warfare and the support of the Bhils and Bhamashah; Sherpur (1580) and Dewair (1582); recovery of most of Mewar and the capital at Chavand; Tod’s comparison with Leonidas.

Q12. Why did the Hurda Conference of 1734 fail, and what did it show about Rajput politics in the 18th century? (150 words)

Answer pointers: Maratha entry after 1730; Sawai Jai Singh II’s initiative; Jagat Singh II as president; the rulers present and the terms of 17 July 1734; the plan to gather at Rampura after the rains; rivalries over succession, territory and Mughal favours; the lack of any joint command or treasury; the later treaties of 1817–18.

Q13. Match the place with the event in the last journey of Rana Sanga after Khanwa.

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Place	Event
A. Baswa (Dausa)	1. The wounded Sanga was brought here for treatment and took his vow
B. Irich	2. Sanga’s camp, where his nobles are said to have poisoned him
C. Kalpi	3. Place of Sanga’s death on 30 January 1528
D. Mandalgarh (Bhilwara)	4. Place of his cremation and the chhatri with eight pillars

• (a) A-1, B-2, C-3, D-4
• (b) A-2, B-1, C-4, D-3
• (c) A-1, B-3, C-2, D-4
• (d) A-4, B-2, C-3, D-1

Answer: (a)

Q14. Consider the following statements about the Battle of Khanwa.

1. Maldeo of Marwar, Prithviraj Kachhwaha of Amber and Akheraj Deora of Sirohi carried the wounded Sanga from the field.
2. Ajja Jhala took Sanga’s royal insignia and led the army after Sanga fell.
3. Hasan Khan Mewati and Mahmud Lodi fought on Babur’s side.

Which of the statements given above are correct?

• (a) 1 and 2 only
• (b) 2 and 3 only
• (c) 1 and 3 only
• (d) 1, 2 and 3

Answer: (a). Hasan Khan Mewati and Mahmud Lodi fought with Sanga against Babur.

Q15. Consider the following statements about the Battle of Haldighati.

1. Man Singh assembled his army at Mandalgarh before marching to Gogunda.
2. A rumour of imperial reinforcements, spread by Mihtar Khan, helped to restore Mughal morale.
3. Man Singh chased Pratap into the hills and captured him.

Which of the statements given above are correct?

• (a) 1 and 2 only
• (b) 2 and 3 only
• (c) 1 and 3 only
• (d) 1, 2 and 3

Answer: (a). Man Singh did not pursue Pratap, and Akbar was displeased.

Q16. Describe the Battle of Haldighati: the forces, the course of the fight and the outcome. (250 words)

Answer pointers: the failure of the four embassies; Pratap at Gogunda and Man Singh at Mandalgarh; Khamnor and the Haldighati pass; Pratap’s formation (Hakim Khan Sur, Ramshah Tomar, Bhamashah, Jhala Bida, the Bhil archers under Rana Punja) and the Mughal divisions; the Mewar charge and the rally at Rakt Talai; Mihtar Khan’s rumour and the musketeers; Jhala Bida and the retreat; Chetak at Balicha; casualty figures in the sources; Man Singh’s failure to pursue; the occupation of Gogunda; the contrasting historians’ views.